Please look at files. I also included textbook for references/resources.

Please look at files. I also included textbook for references/resources.
Due August 2 Worth 40 points. Each question is worth 5 points. Answer each question as completely as possible in 300+ words. This will be more than 2400 words of text (not including questions). Type your answers directly onto this document. Do not delete the questions/prompts from this document (1 point deduction if deleted). Use information from the course reading and cite any paraphrasing or quotations. Make sure you include specific examples. A lack of examples in your response will mean a 2 point deduction in the grade for that question. Proofread your writing and avoid overusing synonym finders or paraphrasing software. You writing should be in your own words but important phrases, terms, or concepts should not be altered or paraphrased. Make sure the reader can understand the arguments you are making. Pick one sport with multiple codes. Discuss the differences among the multiple codes of that sport. Identify at least three codes. What is the common component of the sport? Identify and explain three social media analytics software which currently exist in 2022. How can they be used to analyze international sport management social media efforts? What are the managerial implications of perpetual innovation in mobile, digital, and television media? Use current examples in addition to textbook examples to illustrate your answer. Identify and explain three ways that globalization is manifested in professional sport. Give specific examples from the text. Discuss modern developments in crowd management and explain whether these strategies have decreased misconduct and hooliganism in international sport. How have international sport organizations addressed issues of integrity and corruption? Use specific examples from the textbook. Why is gender diversity a competitive advantage in international sport management and sport governance? What is your prediction for the future of the Olympic movement? In your answer discuss the current state of the IOC, Olympism, and Olympic Solidarity.
Please look at files. I also included textbook for references/resources.
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 CRITICAL ISSUES IN GLOBAL SPORT MANAGEMENT The social, cultural and economic significance of sport has never been more evident than it is today. Adopting a critical management perspective, this book examines the most important themes and challenges in global sport management. From match-fixing, doping, bribery and corruption to corporate social responsi- bility, governance and new media, it helps students, researchers and practitioners to understand the changing face of the global sport industry. Written by leading international sport management experts, Critical Issues in Global Sport Management includes twenty chapters and real-life case studies from around the world. It examines contemporary governance and management issues as well as the ethical challenges faced by the global sport industry, including questions of integrity and accountability in recent drug scandals that have been widely reported and debated. This book deals with such questions and many more, highlighting the fact that the global sport system is in urgent need of new and innovative solutions to these ongoing problems. Based on cutting-edge research from the US, UK, Australia, Europe and beyond, this book will add depth and currency to any course in sport management, sport business, sport development or sport events. Nico Schulenkorf is Senior Lecturer for Sport Management at the UTS Business School, Sydney, Australia. His research focuses on the social, cultural and health- related outcomes of sport-for-development and event management projects. Nico has worked with local and international NGOs, Government Agencies, Sport Associations and Ministries in developing capacities to implement development projects in countries such as Sri Lanka, Israel/Palestine and the Pacific Islands. Nico is co-editor of Global Sport-for-Development: Critical Perspectives (Palgrave, 2014) and Managing Sport Development: An International Approach (Routledge, 2016). He is also co-founder and editor of the Journal of Sport for Development. Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 Stephen Frawleyis the Director of the Australian Centre for Olympic Studies at the UTS Business School, Sydney, Australia. His research is focused on the organi- sation and management of the Olympic Games and associated sport mega-events. He has published widely on the Olympic Games and the Football World Cup and is the editor of Managing the Olympics, Managing the Football World Cupand Managing Sport Mega-Events. Stephen’s academic work is informed by his experience working on sport mega-events. From 1998 to 2001 he worked for the Sydney 2000 Organ – ising Committee for the Olympic and Paralympic Games and he was an advisor to the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games Organising Committee.Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 CRITICAL ISSUES IN GLOBAL SPORT MANAGEMENT Edited by Nico Schulenkorf and Stephen FrawleyDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 First published 2017 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 Nico Schulenkorf and Stephen Frawley The right of Nico Schulenkorf and Stephen Frawley to be identified as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice:Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Names: Schulenkorf, Nico, editor. | Frawley, Stephen, 1969- editor. Title: Critical issues in global sport management / edited by Nico Schulenkorf and Stephen Frawley.Description: Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2016020603| ISBN 9781138911222 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138911239 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781315692883 (ebook)Subjects: LCSH: Sports administration. | Sports and globalization.Classification: LCC GV713 .C77 2016 | DDC 796.06/9–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016020603 ISBN: 978-1-138-91122-2 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-91123-9 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-69288-3 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Fish Books Ltd.Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 Nico – to Anja and Henry Stephen – to Tanya, Tara and AlannaDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 This page intentionally left blankDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 CONTENTS List of figuresx List of tables xi List of contributors xii Acknowledgements xxii 1 Critical issues in global sport 1 Nico Schulenkorf and Stephen Frawley PART 1 Governance, integrity and welfare 7 2 Governance, CSR and diversity: a critical field of study in global sport management 9 Johanna A. Adriaanse, Sarah Cobourn and Stephen Frawley 3 Gender diversity in the governance of international sport federations 23 Johanna A. Adriaanse 4 Integrity and corruption in sport 38 Catherine Ordway and Hayden Opie 5 Match-fixing and manipulation in sport 64 Markus Breuer and Sebastian KaiserDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 viiiContents 6 Doping control and global sport 77 Jules R. Woolf 7 Head injuries and concussion issues 93 Annette Greenhow and Lisa Gowthorp PART 2 Globalisation 113 8 Globalisation and professional sport 115 Geoff Dickson and João M.C. Malaia Santos 9 Socio-economic impacts of sports mega-events: more unintended than intended? 128 Wolfram Manzenreiter and John Horne 10 Social media, fan engagement and global sport 141 Olan Scott, Michael Naylor and Katherine Bruffy 11 Managing football hooliganism 152 Joel Rookwood 12 Farewell to the hooligan? Modern developments in football crowd management 164 Geoff Pearson and Clifford Stott 13 Global sport-for-development 176 Nico Schulenkorf, Emma Sherry and Katie Rowe 14 Sport and international diplomacy 192 Robert E. Baker and Pamela H. Baker PART 3 Technology and social media 203 15 Analytics, technology and high-performance sport 205 Bill Gerrard 16 A general theory of the use of technology in sport and some consequences 219 Harry Collins and Robert EvansDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 Contents ix 17 The tyranny of perpetual innovation: global mobile media, digital communications and television 238 Brett Hutchins and David Rowe 18 Social media analytics for sport management: pitfalls, tools and best practices 252 Larena Hoeber and Orland Hoeber 19 Digital technology and sport sponsorship 266 Christopher Rumpf and Christoph Breuer 20 Current trends and future research challenges in global sport management 278 Stephen Frawley and Nico Schulenkorf Index 286Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 FIGURES 2.1 Integrated research model of sport governance14 5.1 Overview of match-fixing 66 5.2 Timeline for match-fixing induced by investors 72 13.1 Article title word cloud (top 50 condensed words) 180 13.2 Year of publication by number of articles 181 13.3 Thematic areas 182 13.4 Researcher location (by continent) 183 13.5 Location of research (by continent) 183 13.6 Research methodology 185 18.1 Temporal distributions of all of the tweets for the event (including two days before and two days after) 259 18.2 Zooming into the first day of the race at five-minute intervals shows a sudden peak in neutral and negative posts near 3:00 p.m 260 18.3 Looking at a two-hour span more clearly shows the abnormal spike in Twitter traffic; examination of the tweets revealed that people were tweeting about a bus crash 261 18.4 Viewing the official @letour tweets at this same time period shows the organisation’s response to the crash 261 19.1 An image of an eye-tracking heat map in Formula 1 268 19.2 Image of EEG data recording 269 19.3 Image of digital overlays in the Dutch Football League Eredivisie 272Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 TABLES 3.1 Percentage of women directors on boards of international sport federations (N = 76) 28 3.2 International sport federations with women chairs and women chief executives in 2014 30 3.3 Percentage of women as directors, chairs and chief executives of IFs in 2014 and 2012 31 6.1 WADA Anti-doping rules violations 82 6.2 WADA international standards 85 6.3 WADA spirit of sport criteria 88 13.1 Forms of literature analysis 177 13.2 Inclusion/exclusion criteria 179 13.3 Top 10 journal outlets 181 13.4 Researchers and research sites (greater than five publications) 184 13.5 Sport activity 185 14.1 Sample itinerary for a basketball program with athletes and coaches 197 16.1 Classification of capture devices 220 16.2 Analysis of 535 English Premiership matches out of the 2,280 played over three seasons 231 16.3 How TV-replays could be used in football 232Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 CONTRIBUTORS Johanna A. Adriaanse is Senior Lecturer in the Business School at the University of Technology, Sydney, and a member of the University’s Centre for Corporate Governance. Her area of interest and expertise focuses on investigating the relation ship between gender and sport. Currently, she is conducting research on gender dynamics in the governance of sport organisations globally. She has published her work in prestigious academic journals including the Journal of Sport Management, Sport Management Review, and the Journal of Business Ethics. In addition, Johanna is a strong public advocate for women, sport, and gender equality. She has completed projects with UN Women in New York, served as the co-chair for the International Working Group on Women and Sport (IWG) from 2006 to 2014, and given presentations at conferences all over the world. She obtained her Ph.D. and master of education at the University of Sydney after completing her bachelor of education (Physical Education) and bachelor of psychology in Amsterdam. Pamela H. Baker is an Associate Professor of Special Education and Director of the Division of Special Education and Disability Research at George Mason Univer – sity. She earned her doctorate in leadership studies from Bowling Green State University, and her M.Ed. and B.S. from the College of William and Mary. In addition to numerous presentations and publications, Dr. Baker has served as an investigator on a variety of state and federal grants to support teacher preparation and sport diplomacy projects with funding in excess of US $8.7 million dollars. She is currently involved in an ongoing cooperative agreement with the U.S. Depart – ment of State’s SportsUnited Sports Visitors and Envoys programme. Robert E. Baker is a Professor and Director of the Center for Sport Management and Division of Sport Recreation and Tourism at George Mason University. He earned his doctorate from the College of William and Mary, and his M.S. and B.S.Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 from Pennsylvania State University. He has served as President of the North American Society for Sport Management, as a founding commissioner of the Commission on Sport Management Accreditation, and a founding board member of the World Association of Sport Management. Dr. Baker received NASSM’s 2010 Distin guished Sport Management Educator Award and NASPE’s 2011 Out – standing Achievement in Sport Management Award. In addition to publishing numerous books and articles, Dr. Baker has served as the principal investigator on several grants to support sport diplomacy projects totalling U.S. $6 million. He is currently involved in a cooperative agreement with the U.S. Department of State’s Sports United Sports Visitors and Envoys programme. Christoph Breuer is a full Professor at the German Sport University, Cologne, specialising in research on sport demand, sport organisations and sport sponsoring. His research mostly relates to forecasting sport demand, identifying key drivers of viability of sport organisations, and measuring the economic value of sport sponsoring. His work has been published extensively. Markus Breuer is the Dean of the M.A. Sport Management program at the SRH University Heidelberg, Germany. After graduation in business administration and economics in Braunschweig and Chemnitz, Professor Breuer received a Ph.D. in Sport Economics from the University of Jena. From 2011 to 2014, he joined the KPMG transfer-pricing office in Hamburg. He obtained his master’s degree in international taxation from the University of Hamburg in 2014. Professor Breuer lectures regularly at various local and foreign universities and presents his latest research findings at international conferences. Katherine Bruffy is a Lecturer of Sport Management and Programme Leader in the Department of Sport at Unitec Institute of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand. Katie’s passion for sport began as a youth swimmer and continued through her time as a collegiate synchronised swimmer. She began teaching in higher education in 2006 at Ohio State University, where she also earned her Ph.D. researching sport nostalgia. Particular research areas of interest include: sport marketing, consumer behaviour, governance and sport development. Katie has worked within these research areas as a consultant for the Skycity Breakers Basketball Team, Auckland Mystics Netball Team, and Auckland Cricket. Sarah Cobourn (originally from Toronto) is the Senior Officer of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) at Hitachi. Sarah completed a Ph.D. focused on Creating Shared Value in professional sport at the University of Technology Sydney (UTS). Sarah continues her research through the Australian Centre forOlympic Studies at UTS Business School. Previously, she has worked as a con – sult ant, working with organisations across Australia, North America and the United Kingdom to develop innovative policies and programmes that create shared economic and societal value. Sarah also holds a bachelor’s degree in Contributors xiiiDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 science from Western University (Canada) and a master’s in sport management from Bond University (Australia). Harry Collins is Distinguished Research Professor and Directs the Centre for the Study of Knowledge, Expertise and Science at Cardiff University. He is an elected Fellow of the British Academy and a winner of the Bernal prize for social studies of science. He has served as President of the Society for Social Studies of Science. His 18 published books cover the sociology of scientific knowledge, artificial intelli – gence, the nature of expertise, and tacit knowledge. He is continuing his research on the sociology of gravitational wave detection, expertise, fringe science, science and democracy, technology in sport, and a new technique—‘the Imitation Game’ – for exploring expertise and comparing the extent to which minority groups are integrated into societies. He is currently writing books on science and demo cracy, on artificial intelligence, on technology in sport, and on the Imitation Game. Geoff Dickson has an honours degree in leisure management and a doctorate from Griffith University. In between degrees, Geoff was General Manager of the Coorparoo Australian Football Club in Brisbane. He began his academic career in 1996 at Central Queensland University. In 2004, Geoff moved from Australia to New Zealand to work at Auckland University of Technology as a director of Gymsports New Zealand and Tennis North Harbour. He is currently Chair of AFL New Zealand and President of the Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand. Geoff ’s research interests focus on interorganisational relationships – federated networks, collaborations, partnerships, co-opetition, clusters and cliques. These relationships include sponsorship and ambush marketing. Geoff has presented his research in every continent, except Africa and the Antarctic. Robert Evans is a Professor of Sociology in the Cardiff School of Social Sciences. He specialises in Science and Technology Studies (STS) and has published exten – sively on the nature of expertise. Together with Harry Collins he is the author of the influential ‘Third Wave of Science Studies’ paper (Social Studies of Science, 2002) and Rethinking Expertise (University of Chicago Press, 2007). His current work has two main elements. The first continues to refine and extend the theory of expertise that underpins the Third Wave programme in STS. The second focuses on the development of the Imitation Game as a new method for social research. This methodological work, which is funded by the European Research Council (#269463, IMGAME), operationalises the idea of interactional expertise and provides a means by which its distribution can be measured and its content explored across a wide range of domains and topics. Stephen Frawley is the Director of the Australian Centre for Olympic Studies, which is located at the UTS Business School, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia. Stephen is the editor of Managing Sport Mega-Events (Routledge) and co- editor (along with Daryl Adair) of Managing the Olympics (Palgrave Macmillan) and xivContributorsDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 Contributors xv Managing the Football World Cup (Palgrave Macmillan). Stephen has significant experience working in sport having worked in the Sport Division for the Sydney 2000 Olympic and Paralympic Games from 1998 to 2001. Bill Gerrard is an economics graduate of the University of Aberdeen and Trinity College, Cambridge, and received his doctorate from the University of York. He is currently Professor of Business and Sports Analytics at Leeds University Business School. Bill has published academic papers in sport management on the football transfer market, measuring team quality, coaching efficiency, stadium naming rights, and the sporting and financial performance of pro sports teams. He is a former editor of the European Sport Management Quarterly. Bill holds the UEFA B football coaching licence. In recent years, his work has mainly focused on the development of coach-led analytics. He was the technical analyst for Saracens (rugby union) from 2010 to 2015. Bill has also provided statistical analysis to support the Sky Sports coverage of Super League (rugby league). Bill has worked with several U.K. and Dutch football clubs, an Australian rugby league team, a South African Super 15 rugby union team, the Oakland As and various Olympic sports. Lisa Gowthorp is a full-time Assistant Professor at Bond University and has pre – viously worked in high-performance sport for over 12 years, with organisations such as the NSW Institute of Sport, the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS), and Australian Canoeing. Lisa has managed teams at the World Championships and was the gymnastics section manager on the Australian Olympic Team in Beijing in 2008. Lisa’s research interests include the governance and management of the Australian high-performance sport system, especially government involvement in elite sport, sport governance and regulation, high-performance sport management issues, and contemporary issues surrounding the Olympic Games. She regularly consults with industry on governance issues and sport policy. Lisa is also the Secretary-General of the Sliding Sports Australia (SSA), working towards the development and implementation of good governance practices and procedures for this new Olympic NSO. Annette Greenhow is an Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Law at Bond University, having joined the faculty in 1996 as an adjunct during her private legal practice career. She is now a full-time member of the faculty and teaches Global Sports Law and Governance, Sports Law, Business Associations and Land Law. Annette’s research interests focus on the intersection between sport, law, regulation, and governance and her research evaluates the regulatory responses of the Australian football codes to concussion management at the elite levels. Annette has authored and co-authored publications on sports-related concussion and has delivered presentations on this topic at national and international conferences since 2011. She has a keen interest in understanding the interdisciplinary perspectives on sports-related concussion and contributing to the design and delivery of sustainable concussion management solutions for a broad range of stakeholders.Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 xviContributors Larena Hoeber earned her Ph.D. in sport management from the University of British Columbia. She is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Kinesiology and Health Studies at the University of Regina. Her research interests include gender issues in sport, use of innovative research methods, organisational culture, and amateur sport organisations. She teaches in the areas of sport management and mark eting, sociology of sport, volunteer management, and qualitative research methods. She has published her research in the Journal of Sport Management; Sport Management Review; European Sport Management Quarterly; Gender, Work and Organisation; Qualitative Research in Sport, Exercise and Health; International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing; and Sex Roles. Orland Hoeber received his Ph.D. in computer science from the University of Regina (Canada) in 2007. After five years at Memorial University (Canada), he returned to the University of Regina as an Associate Professor in 2012. His primary research interests are in the domains of information visualisation, visual analytics, mobile computing, social media analytics, the process of innovation, and the use of software to support the collection and use of data in business and aca – demic research contexts. His research has been funded by both the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. John Horne is Professor of Sport and Sociology at the University of Central Lancashire, Preston, U.K. He is a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences (FAcSS), Vice-Chair of the British Sociological Association, and Vice-President of the International Sociology of Sport Association. His research interests include sport, leisure, and globalisation; the socio-cultural, political, and economic impacts of sports mega-events; sport and social theory; and consumer culture. He is the author, co-author, editor, and co-editor of over 150 books, edited collections, journal articles and book chapters including: Understanding the Olympics (2nd ed., 2016), Routledge; Mega-Events and Globalization: Capital and Spectacle in a Changing World Order (2016), Routledge; Sport and Social Movements (2014), Bloomsbury Academic; Understanding Sport (2nd ed., 2013), Routledge; Sport in Consumer Culture (2006), Palgrave; Sports Mega-Events (2006), Blackwell; Football Goes East: Business Culture and the People’s Game in China, Japan and South Korea (2004), Routledge; and Japan, Korea and the 2002 World Cup (2002), Routledge. Brett Hutchins is an Australian Research Council Future Fellow and Associate Professor in the School of Media, Film and Journalism at Monash University in Melbourne, Australia. His Fellowship project, ‘The Mobile Media Sport Moment: Markets, Technologies, Power’ (http://artsonline.monash.edu.au/mobilemedia sport/), investigates how smartphones, tablet computers, and mobile com muni- cations are transforming the production and circulation of sport content around the globe. Brett’s latest journal articles appear in Convergence, International Communication Gazette, Telematics and Informatics and Journal of Sport and Social Issues.Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 Contributors xvii His books include Digital Media Sport: Technology, Power and Culture in the Network Society(co-edited with David Rowe, 2013), Routledge; and Sport Beyond Television: The Internet, Digital Media and the Rise of Networked Media Sport (co-authored with David Rowe, 2012), Routledge. He is also the co-editor of a recent special issue of the journal, Media International Australia, on ‘Media Sport: Practice, Culture and Innovation’ (No. 155, May 2015). Sebastian Kaiser holds a Chair of Business Administration, particularly sport management, at Heilbronn University, Germany. Sebastian graduated at German Sport University Cologne and received a Ph.D. in sport economics (2005). He is Section Editor (Social Sciences) of the German Journal of Sports Science and author/ co-author of a range of books, book chapters, and journal articles on sport manage ment. Sebastian lectures regularly at various international universities and is an international professor at the Russian International Olympic University in Sochi. Wolfram Manzenreiter is Professor of Japanese Studies and Vice Head of Depart – ment at the Department of East Asian Studies at the University of Vienna. His research is concerned with the social and anthropological aspects of sports, emotions, work and migration in a globalising world. He is author of several books and numerous articles and book chapters mainly on sport, leisure, popular culture, and social issues in contemporary Japan. As a scholar of globalisation, his research also extends into the larger East Asian region and the transnational networks of the Japanese diaspora. Book publications of note include Sport and Body Politics in Japan (2014), Routledge; and the co-edited volumes on Migration and Development; New Perspectives (2014, in German), ProMedia; Governance, Citizenship and the New Euro – pean Championships, The European Spectacle (2011), Routledge; Sports Mega-Events (2006), Blackwell; Football Goes East: Business Culture and the People’s Game in China, Japan and South Korea (2004), Routledge; and Japan, Korea and the 2002 World Cup (2002), Routledge. Michael Naylor is currently a Senior Lecturer in Sport Management at Auckland University of Technology in New Zealand. Born in Toronto, Canada, Michael also spent time in the United States as both a practitioner and scholar in th e sport industry. His research interests include sport marketing, consumer psychology, and social media. The projects he undertakes are based in a variety of participant and supporter contexts around the world. Hayden Opie is the Director of Studies, Sports Law Programme, Melbourne Law School, the University of Melbourne. Hayden pursues research and teaching interests in all areas of sports law and is recognised internationally for his work in the field, especially in regard to sports integrity. He has been researching and writing on legal aspects of anti-doping since 1987 and has served on various committees and advisory boards in the anti-doping field. He is the foundingDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 xviiiContributors President of the Australian and New Zealand Sports Law Association and served as a legal member of the Australian government’s Anti-Doping Rule Violation Panel from 2010 to 2015. He is a member of the Court of Arbitration for Sport. Hayden teaches the master’s-level subject, ‘Sports Integrity and Investigations’, with Catherine Ordway on the Melbourne Sports Law Programme. Catherine Ordway is currently Professor of Practice (Sports Management), La Trobe University and Senior Fellow, Melbourne Law School, the University of Melbourne. Catherine holds a bachelor of arts in jurisprudence and law degree from the University of Adelaide, a Graduate Diploma of Legal Practice from the University of South Australia, and a Graduate Diploma in Investigations Manage – ment from Charles Sturt University. She is internationally recognised for her work in the field of regulatory review in international sport integrity. Catherine is also a member of the Australian and New Zealand Sports Law Association (ANZSLA) and acted for the Australian Olympic Committee in the lead up to the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Catherine lectures at the master’s level in sports law and sports management subjects at La Trobe University (risk management), at the Univer sity of Melbourne (sports integrity and investigations) with Hayden Opie, the University of New South Wales (anti-doping), and the University of Canberra (performance integrity). Catherine has also taught undergraduate sports manage – ment units as Senior Lecturer at the University of Canberra. She is currently completing her Ph.D. in governance, leadership, and sports integrity. Geoff Pearson is Senior Lecturer in criminal law at the University of Manchester in the United Kingdom. He has utilised ethnographic research to research football fan behaviour and the impact of legal and policing responses on football crowds since 1995, approaching the subject from a socio-legal and human rights perspect – ive. He has been engaged in research, consultancy and police training on football crowd management throughout Europe and has published extensively on the issue, most notably Football Hooliganism: Policing and the War on the English Disease (2007), Pennant; An Ethnography of English Football Fans: Cans, Cops and Carnivals (2012), MUP; and Legal Responses to Football Hooliganism in Europe (in press), TMC Asser. Geoff is co-founder of the Annual Ethnography Symposium and between 2003 and 2014 he was Director of the unique MBA (Football Industries) programme. He is a Manchester United season-ticket holder. Joel Rookwood is a Senior Lecturer in the Faculty of Business, Sport and Enter – prise at Southampton Solent University, United Kingdom, and a Visiting Fellow in Sport Management at the University of Vic, Spain. He studied football science at the undergraduate level and earned master’s degrees in performance analysis and sport management, before being awarded a Ph.D. for his thesis entitled ‘Fan perspectives of football hooliganism’ at the University of Liverpool’s Manage ment School in 2008. He has conducted research and written for various media publi – cations, covering football matches in 110 British grounds, and in stadia across 70Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 Contributors xix countries spanning six continents. He reported on and conducted research at the 2002, 2006, 2010, and 2014 World Cups; the 2004, 2008, and 2012 European Championships; and at confederation equivalents in Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. He has worked in and published widely on sport-for-develop – ment, football fandom, violence, peacebuilding, sports mega-events, and sport and social identity. David Rowe is Professor of Cultural Research, Institute for Culture and Society, University of Western Sydney and Honorary Professor, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Bath. His books include Popular Cultures: Rock Music, Sport and the Politics of Pleasure (1995); Globalization and Sport: Playing the World (co-authored with Toby Miller, Geoffrey Lawrence and Jim McKay, 2001); Sport, Culture and the Media: The Unruly Trinity (2nd ed., 2004); Global Media Sport: Flows, Forms and Futures (2011); and Sport, Public Broadcasting, and Cultural Citizenship: Signal Lost? (co-edited with Jay Scherer, 2014). His work has been translated into several languages, including Chinese, French, Turkish, Spanish, Italian and Arabic. In the specific field of sport management, Professor Rowe has published in International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, Australasian Leisure Management, and European Sport Management Quarterly; and delivered a Keynote Address to the 2005 Sport Management Association of Australia and New Zealand Conference. Katie Rowe is a Lecturer in the sport management programme at Deakin Univer – sity and currently teaches units in Sport Development, Sport Performance, and Sport Practicum. She completed her Ph.D. studies in 2013 with focus on women’s cycling participation in Australia. Katie’s research interests include sport and recreation participation, women’s engagement in sport, and the ways in which sport can be used as a tool to improve community health and wellbeing (sport-for- development). Her research to date has focused on participation issues in sports such as cycling, table tennis, and netball and she is interested in exploring oppor – tunities for development through sport initiatives in local government contexts. Katie has presented at sport management and physical activity conferences both nationally and internationally. Christopher Rumpf researches and teaches in the field of sport management and sport marketing at the German Sport University, Cologne. His current studies explore the impact of colour and animation on sponsorship outcomes and the affective and behavioural response to sport marketing activities. His articles have appeared in the Journal of Sport Management, Psychology and Marketing, and Marketing Review St. Gallen, among others. João M.C. Malaia Santos has a bachelor’s degree in history and a doctorate in economic history from University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil. He began his academic career in 2010 at University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), where heDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 xxContributors developed his post doctoral research on international sports competitions hosted in Brazil (1919−2016). João is currently director of São José Rugby Club and works on the master’s programme in sports management at the University Nove de Julho (São Paulo, Brazil). João’s research interests focus on organisational theory, critical manage ment, international relations, history of sport, sociology of sport, and sports economics. In 2015, he was a commentator for ESPN Brazil’s coverage of the Rugby World Cup. Nico Schulenkorf is Senior Lecturer for Sport Management at the University of Technology, Sydney (UTS). His research focuses on the social, cultural, and health- related outcomes of sport-for-development and event-management projects. He is particularly interested in the role of sport as a vehicle for sustainable development and peacebuilding within and between disadvantaged communities. For his long- term contribution to the advancement of social justice on an international level, Nico was awarded the 2008 UTS Vice Chancellor’s Human Rights Award. Nico is co-founder and editor of the Journal of Sport for Development and serves on the editorial board of the European Journal for Sport and Society and Sport and Entertain – ment Review. Emma Sherry is an Associate Professor within the La Trobe University Centre for Sport and Social Impact, specialising in the area of sport development. Emma has com pleted a bachelor of arts at the University of Melbourne and a masters of business (Sport Management) and a Ph.D. at Deakin University. Emma’s Ph.D. studies investigated conflict of interest in the Australian Football League. Her current research interests include community development through sport activities, under taking a broad range of research projects with national and regional sport organi sations in Australia and Oceania, including Netball Australia, National Rugby League, Australian Football League, and Tennis Australia. Additional research areas include access and equity in sport participation, and sport and recreation for at-risk and marginalised communities. Emma is currently supervising a number of Ph.D. students in the areas of sport-for-development in India and with refugee communities, para-sport athlete wellbeing, and elite athlete career transition. Olan Scott is an Assistant Professor in Sport Management at University of Canberra. His research into sport media particularly focuses on the mainstream media and fan engagement in social media. Dr. Scott is heavily involved in industry-focused research including social media marketing, fan development, strategic planning, and brand-awareness market research in the Canberra com – munity. His investigations examine how events are framed by the media for audience interpretation. In addition, he also researches the use of social media, leading projects involved in social media marketing for professional sports teams. He has also been a board member of the Canberra Cavalry since March 2015. Dr. Scott’s research provides a greater understanding of the way sports governingDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 bodies, teams, and players interact with the paying public to build their loyalty base. Understanding and improving the way the industry approaches and engages fans offers sports an opportunity to improve its positive societal role. Clifford Stott is Professor of Social Psychology at Keele University in Staffordshire, United Kingdom. His work revolves around crowd psychology, collective conflict, and public order policing. He has published over 50 articles in leading interdisci- plinary journals and co-authored and edited three books, one of which was on the 2011 English ‘riots’. He works regularly with police forces, governments, and football authorities across the world and is widely recognised as a global expert in his field. In 2014, he was awarded the Economic and Social Research Council’s (ESRC) national award for the impact of his work on public policy. In 2015, his work was acknowledged by the ESRC as one of its ‘Top 50’ achievements in its 50-year history. His research underpins recent human-rights-based reforms of public order policing in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Denmark and Queensland, Australia. Jules R. Woolf is an Assistant Professor at Adelphi University in the Department of Exercise Science, Health Studies, Physical Education and Sport Management. He completed his Ph.D. in Sport Management at the University of Texas at Austin where he also earned a master’s degree in exercise physiology. His multidisciplinary background informs his practice as he attempts to combine his research training in physiology, management, and communications. His research interests involve the ways in which institutional and organisational forces impact the nexus between sport and health. In essence, he is interested in the ways that sport is managed to promote positive and avoid negative health outcomes. A main focus of his research examines doping in sport. His research has been published in the Journal of Sport Management, International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics and the British Journal of Sports Medicine, among others. Contributors xxiDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This book was conceived with the assistance of several people. From within the global community of sport management scholars, we received widespread encour- agement and support for the book, with several colleagues engaged as contributors. The international expertise and thoughtful reflections of these authors has pro – vided profound insights into critical aspects of sport management. Thank you for sharing your knowledge and for taking time to write, edit, and amend the chapters.As editors, we were conscious of the need to make the material research driven yet accessible and relevant for a wide audience of students, academics, and practi- tioners of sport management. Each of the contributing authors has honoured our intent; we thank them for their collegiality and enthusiasm in achieving that research goal. We also wanted to ensure the overall quality of the book and subjected all chapters to rigorous editorial feedback. We believe that this approach has been important to secure coherence and continuity in the development of different concepts and issues presented in the book. We especially thank Dr Natasha Black for her outstanding editorial advice. We also wish to acknowledge the encouragement and professionalism of the Taylor and Francis editorial team: Simon Whitmore (Senior Commissioning Editor), William Bailey (Editorial Assistant), and Cecily Davey (Editorial Assistant). Finally, and perhaps most importantly, we like to express our love and gratitude to Anja, Henry, Tanya, Tara and Alanna who cheered from the sidelines as this book evolved.Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 1 CRITICAL ISSUES IN GLOBAL SPORT Nico Schulenkorf and Stephen Frawley Background and context Sport holds significant social, cultural and economic importance to people all over the world. Every year, billions of dollars are spent on sporting goods and services, including sport equipment, broadcasting licenses, naming rights and live entertain – ment. From a business perspective, the sport sector employs millions of people and presents a crucial component of many national economies. For example, sport’s contribution to the English economy has reached over £20 billion, about 2 per cent of the total economy (Sport England, 2013). This places sport up in the top 15 industry sectors above motor vehicles, telecommunication services, legal services, accounting, publishing, advertising and the utilities. However, sport is more than simply a business. Sport also provides important opportunities for social engage ment and active participation contributes to a healthy lifestyle. Overall, the significance of sport is felt on the sporting fields around the world where profes- sional sport managers, development officers, programme coordinators, coaches and volunteers are focusing on growing the potential of athletes, clubs, businesses and (sport) communities. With the sport industry experiencing exponential growth, sport managers, sport management academics and graduates of sport management programmes are increasingly required to be experts across a number of disciplines in a fast-changing business environment. Therefore, universities around the world are providing numerous sport-specific subjects, including sport management, sport development, sport globalisation, sport marketing, sport and the media to equip students with the required knowledge to master imminent social, cultural, technological and economic challenges. While in the past sport management was often seen as a by- product of business education, today more and more sport management degrees are offered at reputable universities at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels.Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 At the same time, research in sport management has developed into a well- respected and rigorous field of study. Dozens of high-quality academic journals and book publishers provide important outlets for sport management academics to publish their latest research findings.Critical Issues in Global Sport Management was conceived with the clear intent to engage a wide range of sport management scholars including academics, students and the wider sport community in current, critical and applied sport management issues. To achieve this goal – and against the background of an increasingly global sport audience – this book provides 20 intriguing chapters and topical case studies from around the world. This collection of chapters is written by leading interna- tional sport management experts and examines contemporary issues and the latest challenges faced by the global sport industry. For example, in recent years the issues of integrity and ethical behaviour in professional sport and sport management have been widely reported and debated. Such topics are receiving significant media attention and they provide a continual challenge for sporting administrators who have to address issues such as match-fixing, doping, bribery and corrupt govern – ance structures. Critical Issues in Global Sport Management deals with such concerns and many others from a critical management perspective, highlighting the fact that not all is well with the global sport system and that cultural change may be required. Purpose of the book In the past, sport programmes, projects and events have been examined from a number of academic perspectives including history, sociology, politics, marketing, management, strategy, urban planning and economics. What was lacking, however, was a book that identified and evaluated the current issues and complexities faced by those charged with the responsibility of managing sport in compound business contexts as well as intricate social environments. With Critical Issues in Global Sport Management we want to address this issue and provide a book that discusses the latest trends and issues faced by sport managers around the world. Moreover, we want to provide an attractive text for students, one that brings sport management education to life. In short, we want to assist in making reading, learning and classroom discussions relevant, meaningful and enjoyable! In contrast to ‘‘plain’ sport management textbooks that describe concepts and standard aspects of management in a pre-defined and often restricted manner, this compilation of research-based chapters goes beyond standard management know – ledge to explore and discuss a wide range of current issues and global developments in the management of sport. In other words, we put Critical Issues in Global Sport Management above standard introductory sport management books; it should be used for advanced undergraduate or postgraduate coursework program mes, or as a supple- mentary volume that complements standard texts (e.g., Beech and Chadwick, 2013; Hoye, Smith, Nicholson and Stewart, 2012; Rosner and Shropshire, 2010) with more critical and in-depth analyses of contemporary sport management topics. 2 Schulenkorf and FrawleyDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 To achieve the goal of providing an attractive yet rigorous sport management book, we have secured an impressive array of acclaimed authors who have contri – buted chapters and expert knowledge in their favourite areas of research and practice. With contributions from the United States, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Germany, Austria and Brazil, the group of authors also contributed to the global flavour and cross-cultural perspectives reflected in this book. We have asked all authors to link critical theory with current practice to bring their chapters to life through real-life cases and practical examples. In this way, Critical Issues in Global Sport Management combines research-based investigations into current global issues in sport management with dedicated critiques of contemporary cases in their own right. For us, these aspects set our book apart from other textbooks and we are convinced that Critical Issues in Global Sport Management will allow for timely debates, rigorous discussions and critical reflections in the classroom and beyond – something we consider crucially important in an increasingly global (sport) world. About this book In this introductory chapter we have briefly provided the background, purpose and context for Critical Issues in Global Sport Management. In the remaining 19 chapters of this book we invite readers to explore, learn, discuss and reflect on the latest concepts, issues and trends in managing sport. In particular, readers will enjoy timely chapters that are broadly categorised into three overarching sections: Governance, integrity, and welfare (Chapters 2–7); Globalisation (Chapters 8–14); and Technology and social media (Chapters 15–19). Finally, in the last chapter of the book we as editors provide a brief reflection on the issues discussed and we look forward to future challenges in sport management. The section on governance, integrity and welfare in sport begins with Chapter 2, provided by Johanna Adriaanse, Sarah Cobourn, and Stephen Frawley. Their chapter engages with the critical topics of governance, CSR and diversity manage – ment. The authors examined how the three constructs have developed in sport, and how they are related to one another. Implications for sport managers are suggested and recommendations for future research in this growing field are provided. Continuing with the theme of governance and diversity management, in Chapter 3, Johanna Adriaanse goes into more detail discussing the topic of gender diversity in the governance of international sport federations. Her chapter show cases that while women’s participation in many sports has been increasing over time, female representation in leadership positions remains a serious challenge. Adriaanse provides empirical evidence for her findings through a recently con ducted audit of gender distribution in the composition of the executive boards of inter national sport federations. The negative and potentially damaging conse quences of the omission of women in executive roles are clearly outlined. In Chapter 4, Catherine Ordway and Hayden Opie define and discuss the concepts of integrity, corruption, doping, match-fixing and betting in sport. The authors suggest a number of approaches and strategies towards managing Critical issues in global sport 3Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 corruption issues and protecting the integrity of sport. Next, in Chapter 5, Markus Breuer and Sebastian Kaiser continue with the theme of corruption and discuss the timely topic of match-fixing and manipulation in sport. Their focus is on the conse quences of betting and manipulation of individuals, clubs and leagues, as well as the potentially damaging influence that powerful multi-club investors/owners may have on ‘their’ clubs. In Chapter 6, Jules Woolf explores the challenge of how to manage drug use in sport. He explains the complexity of dealing with doping from a sport management perspective and provides an analysis of the World Anti- Doping Agency’s current strategies and tactics. Finally, in Chapter 7, Annette Greenhow and Lisa Gowthorp deliberate sport-related head injuries and con – cussion issues from a medical, legal and managerial perspective. Illustrated through two inter national case studies, the chapter specifically discusses the regu lation and governance of sports-related concussions and the implications for sport managers and their organisations. The section on globalisation is introduced by Geoff Dickson and João Malaia who in Chapter 8 discuss a number of key domains in which globalisation can be evidenced in today’s sporting world. The consequences of topics such as global recruitment of players and their merchandising options, the global broadcasting of media content and scheduling of games in foreign markets, as well as overseas investment in sporting clubs and teams are critically discussed and implications for sport managers are provided. In Chapter 9, Wolfram Manzenreiter and John Horne critically investigate the (un)intended socioeconomic impacts of global sport mega-events. They illustrate their arguments through a case study of the 2012 London Olympics, which provides numerous implications and lessons learnt for sport event organisers. Next, in Chapter 10, Olan Scott, Michael Naylor and Katherine Bruffy discuss the timely topic of social media with a focus on interna- tional fan engage ment. The authors provide a number of contemporary social media examples to illustrate opportunities and challenges in this space; they also outline the lessons learnt for an effective use of social media aimed at maximising market ing potential and engaging fans from all over the world. Next, Joel Rookwood in Chapter 11 reflects on his long-term experiences in researching the complex topic of hool igan ism in sport. He focuses on English football when outlining the issues caused by hooligans for other sport stakeholders, and he provides managerial impli cations for preventing and controlling hooligans in and around the stadium. In a related topic, Geoff Pearson and Clifford Stott discuss current developments in the science of football crowd management. In Chapter 12, they call for a more holistic, engaged and evidence-based approach towards understanding and managing football crowds. Chapter 13 introduces the concept of sport-for-development (SFD) and pro – vides an overarching review of theoretical and empirical work done in this field of study. SFD uses sporting projects as a vehicle for achieving social, cultural, psycho- logical, educational economic or health-related outcomes for disadvantaged communities. Nico Schulenkorf, Emma Sherry and Katie Rowe highlight current strengths and weaknesses in SFD research and practice, and they provide 4 Schulenkorf and FrawleyDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 recommendations for future work in this emerging field. Chapter 14 connects with the previous one as it discusses the topic of sport and international diplomacy. Authors Robert Baker and Pamela Baker critically analyse diplomacy efforts on various levels and showcase an intriguing international sport-for-diplomacy initiative they have been engaged with for a number of years.The final section on technology and social media in sport begins with Bill Gerrard’s Chapter 15 on analytics and technology in high performance sport. It explores how in recent years, technological developments have revolutionised the collection of performance data with profound consequences for performance analysis. In particular, the impacts, opportunities and challenges of tracking data are discussed and managerial implications are provided. In Chapter 16, Harry Collins and Robert Evans critically examine the role of technologies in supporting match officials and argue that getting the ‘right’ outcome should be seen as a problem of increasing ‘justice’ rather than increasing ‘accuracy’. The authors suggest that technology must be used by officials wherever possible – a standpoint that should provide for some interesting debates between sport traditionalists (or romanticists?) and supporters of video referees. In Chapter 17, Brett Hutchins and David Rowe engage in a critical discussion on global mobile media, digital communication and traditional television – a challenging management context they describe as ‘the tyranny of perpetual inno – vation’. The authors explain why professional sport managers and sport business owners tend to struggle in their attempts to lead – rather than react to – develop – ments in mobile and digital media. In a closely related contribution, Larena Hoeber and Orland Hoeber discuss the opportunities and challenges of social media analytics in Chapter 18. In an applied manner, the authors provide examples of different social media analytics software which they believe should be an essential element of any sport organisation’s social media strategy. Finally, in Chapter 19, Christopher Rumpf and Christoph Breuer discuss how the adoption of digital technology can impact on sport management research and practice, and how it may enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of sport sponsorship. The authors provide an overview of technology-based measurements that may be used to better manage, assess and improve sponsorship activities. In Chapter 20, we as editors reflect on what the eclectic combination of chapters in this book has revealed about contemporary and critical issues in global sport management. This is done against a background where each of the chapters has provided relevant theory, practical examples and managerial implications. Therefore, the final chapter allows us to use comparisons and draw links to provide the bigger picture regarding current trends and future challenges in global sport management. References Beech, J. and Chadwick, S. (2013). The business of sport management. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. Critical issues in global sport 5Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 Hoye, R., Smith, A., Nicholson, M. and Stewart, B. (2012). Sport management: Principles andappli cations (3rd ed.). Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Rosner, S. and Shropshire, K. (2010). The business of sports(2nd ed.). Sudbury, UK: Jones and Bartlett Learning. Sport England. (2013, July). Economic value of sport in England. Retrieved from www.sport england.org/media/177230/economic-value-of-sport.pdf 6Schulenkorf and FrawleyDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 PART 1 Governance, integrity and welfareDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 This page intentionally left blankDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 2 GOVERNANCE, CSR AND DIVERSITY A critical field of study in global sport management Johanna A. Adriaanse, Sarah Cobourn and Stephen Frawley Governance has only emerged in the last couple of decades as an explicit fiel d of study, primarily in response to management failures of corporate entities around the globe since the 1980s. Failures of large corporations, such as Enron in the United States and OneTel in Australia, have emphasised the need for adequate corp orate governance to protect the rights and interests of the stakeholders. Accord ing to one of the pioneering researchers in the field, Bob Tricker (1993), the impetus for research into governance was the poor performance of corporate leadership. The role and structure of boards were therefore investigated with the aim of improving performance and thus enhancing the sustainability of the corp – orate entity. As with the field of governance, the study of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is a relatively new phenomenon. According to Harjoto and Jo (2011), ‘One of the most significant and contentious corporate trends of the last decade is the growth of corporate social responsibility’ (p. 45). While CSR as a concept has received a great deal of scrutiny over recent years, the fundamental purpose for an organisation’s CSR involvement remains very much uncertain. Friedman (1970) suggested that CSR is a tool employed by organisations to generate shareholder returns while also benefiting broader society. A more detailed discussion of how CSR is defined is outlined later in this chapter, but in general terms, CSR describes ‘how firms manage the business processes to produce an overall positive impact on society and refers to serving people, communities, and the environment in ways that go above and beyond what is legally and financially required of a firm’ (Harjoto and Jo, 2011, p. 45). Before the recent increase in CSR as a corporate strategy, the discussion within management circles (both academic and industry) was very much centred on understanding the fundamentals of good corporate governance. This theme has dramatically accelerated since the emergence of the global financial crisis in 2008.Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 As a consequence of this event, the role and importance of both CSR and corp – orate governance have been highlighted and reinforced (Harjoto and Jo, 2011). Hopkins (2001), for instance, outlined more than 15 years ago that the concept of corporate governance needed to extend to incorporate CSR. The purpose of this chapter therefore is to first examine, within the context outlined above, how governance and CSR have developed in sport. Secondly, the chapter will explore the relationship between governance and CSR and, further, their relationship with diversity practices. Areas for future research will be discussed. Governance: ‘pilot versus watchdog’ Governance involves the exercise of power relations in organisations and the frameworks that prevail within the duties of directing, monitoring and regulating that comprise their core business. Governance, however, needs to be distinguished from management. Tricker (1984) explained that the role of management is to ensure that the business operations run efficiently and effectively. This involves the coordination of the processes of product planning, design, marketing, production and distribution. By contrast, governance is not concerned with the day-to-day operations of an organisation; its focus is of a higher order. There is an emerging literature describing the nature of corporate governance and different approaches. Of particular importance is describing the ‘function’ or ‘purpose’ of governance. For example, Thomas Clarke (2004), in his introduction to Theories of Corporate Governance: The Philosophical Foundations of Corporate Govern – ance wrote that the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) provides a useful definition for the function/role of governance. Clarke (2004) cited the following extract from an OECD report on governance and management: Corporate governance is the system by which business corporations are directed and controlled. The corporate governance structure specifies the distribution of rights and responsibilities among different participants in the corporation, such as the board, managers, shareholders and other stake – holders, and spells out the rules and procedures for making decisions on corporate affairs. By doing this, it also provides the structure through which the company objectives are set, and the means of attaining those objectives and monitoring performance. (p. 1) Others have a different view of the function of governance; for instance, Cadbury defined it as follows: Corporate governance is concerned with holding the balance between economic and social goals and between individual and communal goals. The 10Adriaanse, Cobourn and FrawleyDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 governance framework is there to encourage the efficient use of resources and equally to require accountability for the stewardship of those resources. The aim is to align as nearly as possible the interest of individuals, corp – orations and society. (as cited in Clarke, 2004, p. 2) This means that boards are not only accountable for the financial resources of the company, but also have a responsibility to consider the needs of stakeholders. Yet another approach emphasises the dynamics of corporate governance, described as ‘a continuing process through which conflicting or diverse interests may be accommodated and co-operative action may be taken’ (Commission on Global Governance; as cited in Clarke, 2004, p. 2). Despite variations in approaches to corporate governance, it is evident that board members or directors play a critical role. The board of directors is active at all stages throughout the life of a company. As Clarke (2007a) commented, the board of directors is ‘the fulcrum of corporate governance, the critical nexus in which the fortunes of the company are decided’ (p. 33). In the early stages of a company, it represents the DNA or blueprint for the company’s lifespan. As the company grows, the board of directors represents the source of values and objectives that will further develop and sustain the company. According to a number of leading researchers in the field of corporate governance, in fulfilling their duties, all boards have to balance the strategy and accountability elements of their contribution in ways that encourage performance while maintaining effective control (Daily, Dalton and Cannella, 2003; Johnson, Daily and Ellestrand, 1996; Zahra and Pearce, 1989). Based on this literature, the key roles of boards may be considered as follows: • Control: Monitoring management and ensuring accountability. • Strategy: Approving the strategic direction of the organisation. • Counsel: Providing advice and counsel to management. • Institutional: Building institutional relationships with investors, stakeholders and the community. The metaphor ‘pilot versus watchdog’ captures the tension in the function of governance between directing – such as setting strategic goals and objectives – and monitoring – such as protecting the interests of stakeholders (Carter and Lorsch, 2004; Clarke, 2004; Hoye and Cuskelly, 2007). Situating sport governance within governance Governance is relevant for any group of people who organise themselves for a common purpose. However, governance of corporate entities needs to be distin- guished from governance of non-profit organisations. There has been a recent orthodoxy in corporate governance, with a focus on protecting and enhancing Governance, CSR and diversity 11Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 share holder value (though this is contested by approaches based on a wider con – cern for stakeholder interests; Clarke, 2007a). The focus in non-profit govern ance is more clearly on providing a community service or facilitating the engagement of members in a social activity. After examining several perspectives on the differences in governance characteristics of corporate versus non-profit organi- sations, Hoye (2002) concluded that there are five main differences. Compared to profit-oriented organisations, non-profit organisations have • multiple measures of organisational performance, • shared leadership between an executive and board chair, • more diversity in board membership, • a diversity of constituents to serve, • pressures to maintain volunteer decision-making structures and processes. (Hoye, 2002, pp. 21–22) Although there are many types of sport organisations, the majority of those provid – ing participation opportunities in sport and physical activity can be classified as non-profit, as their main purpose is to provide a service to members rather than making profits and increasing shareholder value. Sport governance is a relatively new concept and relates to the governance of sport organisations. As a field of study, it emerged approximately a decade after the commencement of research into corporate governance. In Sport Governance, Hoye and Cuskelly (2007) documented the scholarly literature since the inception of the field in the late 1980s. They defined sport governance as ‘the structures and processes used by an organisation to develop its strategic goals and direction, monitor its performance against these goals and ensure that the board acts in the best interest of its members’ (Hoye and Cuskelly, 2007, p. 9). It is apparent that the pilot versus watchdog metaphor, as previously described, is also applicable in the realm of sport. Further, Hoye and Cuskelly identified the main research themes related to sport governance as generated by the following questions: • What are the core roles and responsibilities of the board? • What board structures and processes are most effective for sport organisations? • What relationships exist between the board and management? Who exerts authority and power? • What are the key influences on governing boards and its members? The main research themes that emerge from these questions include board mem – bers’ roles, board structures and processes, board-staff relations and key influences in sport governance. A somewhat different perspective was suggested by Ferkins, Shilbury and McDonald (2005). Although they recognised research themes that were similar to those proposed by Hoye and Cuskelly (2007), they presented an integrated model of sport governance research consisting of three components: (a) 12 Adriaanse, Cobourn and FrawleyDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 environmental dynamics, (b) sport governance factors and (c) governance capabilities. An adapt ation of their model is presented in Figure 2.1. The purpose of the model is to provide an overview of research themes in the current liter – ature on sport govern ance and their interrelationships. The first component, environmental dynamics, includes both influences – those that are external to the organisation and those that are internal and specific to a sport. For example, compliance with legal requirements is an external influence, while funding sources and member ship numbers are internal influences (i.e., specific to a parti – cular sport organisation). The second component, sport board dynamics, includes board composition, board roles and responsibilities and directors’ interactions – which are comparable to some of the research themes suggested by Hoye and Cuskelly (2007). The third component of the integrated research model, sport governance dynamics, considers the develop ment of a strategic direction, monitoring management and building relationships with key stakeholders. This component appropriately reflects the nature of govern ance, which has previously been characterised as being a pilot versus a watchdog. Ferkins et al.(2005) argued that the strategic role of the board is a major factor in the governance of sport organisations due to the transition of many national sport bodies from predominantly volunteer-based to professional management structures. The introduction of paid professionals in sport organisations has led to the change from a council of representatives to a modern board of directors to govern the sport. Since the day-to-day operations are now managed by paid profes- sionals, the role of the board has changed to providing strategic direction and counsel to management. A critical part of an organisation’s strategic plan nowadays is the inclusion of a CSR strategy. Therefore, the development of a CSR strategy as part of an organisation’s overall strategic direction has emerged as a major research theme. Despite the variations in perspectives in the research literature on sport govern – ance, one of the main themes has been board structure and composition. In reviewing the sport governance literature to date, Ferkins et al. (2005) found that this theme has been scarcely addressed by sport management scholars. They recom – mended more research into this critical area of knowledge development. Hoye and Cuskelly (2007) also referred to the dearth of studies exploring board composition in sport organisations. Yet, they argued that composition is an essential issue: ‘The questions of who should comprise the board and how they get elected, appointed, selected or invited to a position as a board member are central to the governance of non-profit sport organisations’ (Hoye and Cuskelly, 2007, p. 74). They suggested that one of the key aspects of board composition is the diversity of its members, which should reflect the organisation’s membership and the stakeholders whom they are representing. The types of diversity that may be usefully represented in the boardroom include age, gender, ethnicity, culture, religion, profession and life experience. Although all these aspects of diversity are important, the main focus in the academic literature has been on gender diversity. Governance, CSR and diversity 13Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 CSR: what is it, really? CSR is a broad field that has been attracting a great deal of academic attention in recent years. CSR as a concept encompasses terms such as sustainability, com – munity engagement, corporate citizenship and shared value. The fundamental principle of CSR is that businesses are responsible for their actions and therefore should embrace societal concerns within their operations and in interactions with key stakeholder (Porter and Kramer, 2006). Despite its growing history and increa – sing prominence in business discourse, there is significant confusion regarding how CSR should be defined. This has led to an expansion of terms and definitions to describe similar concepts such as corporate citizenship, corporate accountability, sustainability and sustainable capitalism. These terms are synonymous and therefore interchangeable. Clarke (2007b) specifically noted the confusion in the definition of sustainability. For instance, in some definitions, CSR is subsumed under the sustainability banner, while in others, sustainability is considered a component of CSR. However, despite other competing, complementary and overlapping terms, CSR is the most widely used and will therefore be the central term debated in this chapter. Given the proliferation of terms, finding a widely accepted definition for CSR has been a common challenge across multiple disciplines and sectors. Nonetheless, five key dimensions have emerged as commonalities among the various definitions (Carroll, 1999; Dahlsrud, 2008): 14 Adriaanse, Cobourn and Frawley Environmental dynamics External influencesInternal influences Sport governance dynamics Setting strategic direction (including CSR) Monitoring management Building relationships with key stakeholders Sport board dynamics Board composition (including diversity) Board roles and responsibilities Directors’ interaction Figure 2.1 Integrated research model of sport governanceDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 • Environment: protecting the natural environment. • Social: managing the relationship between business and society. • Economic: managing socio-economic or financial impacts. • Stakeholders: interaction with stakeholders, such as suppliers, customers and so on. • Voluntary: actions not prescribed by law, based on ethical values, beyond legalobligations. Given the points outlined above, one of the most commonly cited definitions refers to CSR as follows: ‘The manner in which businesses manage their economic, social and environmental impacts as well as their stakeholder relationships in their key areas of influence: the workplace, the marketplace, the supply chain, the com – munity and public policy realm’ (John F. Kennedy School of Government, 2008, p. 1). Until recently, CSR was mostly viewed as a business cost to be traded off with profitability. However, over the past decade, companies have realised that CSR activities can benefit both society and business at the same time (Cobourn, 2014). CSR and sport Sport is a prominent international social and economic institution (Jenkins, 2012). The global sport industry has grown rapidly over the past four decades and is now worth an estimated US$1.2 trillion (Plunkett Research, 2014). The economic value of sport and the ripple effects of revenue creation reflect the substantial power of the industry. In today’s business environment, many sporting organisations operate as business franchises and are, therefore, expected to act within legal and ethical boundaries and societal expectations. Many stakeholders in global sport manage – ment have been active in community initiatives for decades, from athletes visiting children in hospitals, to teams promoting healthy lifestyles and participation in physical activity. However, over the past decade, there has been a dramatic increase in the level of support within the sports industry for CSR. This is best evidenced by the large number of social and environmental initiatives and programmes that have been put in place. As sport has become increasingly globalised, this has resulted in key sport stakeholders becoming much more influential members of the global community. As a result of enormous team revenues, player salaries and increasing ticket prices, pressure has been placed on professional sporting organisations to implement more meaningful community-based programmes (Babiak, 2010). Some sport organi- sations have met this demand with efforts to give back to local communities using a variety of strategies and tactics (Cobourn, 2014). For instance, a number of sport organi sations run community outreach activities to ‘address important social issues, build good-will in their communities and, at the same time, enhance their public image’ (Babiak, 2010, p. 562). Sport, therefore, has become a lens through which larger social perspectives of identification, community and sociability are examined (Hunt, Bristol and Bashaw, 1999; Melnick, 1993; Sutton, McDonald, Milne and Cimperman, 1997). CSR across all industries covers an increasingly wide range of Governance, CSR and diversity 15Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 issues, including employees, operations, customers, suppliers, environmental sustain ability, community, ethics and human rights. The specificity of each of these responsibilities does vary according to the type of industry or business. Governance, CSR and diversity Increasingly, a key feature of CSR strategy for sport and non-sport organisations has been the focus on social inclusion and encouraging diversity. Diversity ‘is defined as real or perceived differences among people that affect their interactions and relationships’ (Bell, 2007, p. 4). Similarly, diversity refers to ‘differences between individuals on any attribute that may lead to the perceptions that another person is different from self ’ (van Knippenberg, De Drue and Homann, 2004, p. 1068). There are various types of diversity, including – but not limited to – age, gender, race and ethnicity, education, religion, physical appearance or ability, sexual orient – ation and culture. In the application of CSR, the growing concern for diversity in governance has often been termed diversity management. Managing diversity is about ‘creating a climate in which the potential advantages of diversity for organisational or group performance are maximised while the potential disadvantages are minimised’ (Cox and Beale, 1997, p. 2). In a business context, diversity management is the ‘proactive manage ment technique designed to utilise employee differences in order for an organisation to glean a competitive advantage in the marketplace’ (Fink and Pastore, 1999, p. 313). The embracing of diversity has grown in importance across many industries and contexts in alignment with the growing CSR movement. The focus on diversity can be attributed to a number of factors: • Changing demographics in many communities has resulted in an increase in the median age, the proportion of racial minorities and women in the work – place. • Social pressures have shifted in a manner that leads organisations to fulfil an ethical obligation to have diverse workplaces. • Legislation has been enacted requiring equal employment or access to oppor – tunities irrespective of an individual’s demographic characteristics or back ground. • The value-in-diversity hypothesis suggests that diversity can positively influence desired individual group and organisational outcomes. (Cunningham, 2011, p. 10) Therefore, organisations are increasingly realising that effective management of their social and environmental risks (and obligations) can improve business per – form ance (Margolis and Walsh, 2003). Until recently, the terms diversity and inclusion and social responsibility were used together as organisations attempted to legitimise equity as part of the triple bottom line. Sustainable organisations use a 16 Adriaanse, Cobourn and FrawleyDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 triple-bottom-line approach to track ecological and social performance in addition to traditional financial performance (Savitz and Weber, 2006). However, sustain- ability refers to more than simply the environment, and many organisations are now further pursuing social responsibility by launching diversity and inclusion initiatives as part of their business strategies (Savitz and Weber, 2006). The incorpo- ration of social responsibility and diversity and inclusion has progressed to a growing understanding of how diversity and inclusion are vital to the core business strategy of a sustainable organisation (Applegate and Puentes, 2009). Governance, CSR and diversity in sport Effectively managing diversity is now critical in light of the social and economic pressures that sport organisations are facing in the twenty-first century (Spracklen, Hylton and Long, 2006). According to Doherty and Chelladurai (1999), sport organi sations need new and diverse perspectives, ideas and approaches for success. Given that sport organisations are not immune to the influence of environmental changes, increasing diversity is expected in these organisations, among athletes, coaches, officials, staff and administrators. Furthermore, the dependence of many sport organisations on volunteers can increase the importance of managing diver – sity. Examples of current and increasing diversity-related CSR issues for organi sations include, for example, women and racial minorities in coaching and management; the international and interracial composition of professional sporting teams; the inclusion and employment of people with disabilities; the interaction of younger and older volunteers; and issues with athlete migration and racism, especially in football, with the trade of players from Africa to Europe (Bailey, 2005; Cornelissen and Solberg, 2007; Doherty and Chelladurai, 1999). Given that diversity is now a critical issue for people working in sport, it is vital that the sport workforce understand the dynamics and impacts of diversity in order to maximise the benefits of having a diverse workforce. Sporting managers must strategically address the opportunities and challenges of managing an increasingly diverse workforce. According to Mai-Dalton (1993), social responsi- bility – the moral obligation to treat people fairly – should be the first and only reason for supporting diversity in organisations. However, Wright, Ferris, Hiller, and Kroll (1995) also noted, importantly, that if competitive advantage is based on human and organisational resources, then increasing diversity not only requires embracing reality, but also changing policies and procedures to align with the needs of the changing marketplace. For example, when NASCAR sought to increase the diversity of its spectators, it sought the help of NBA star, Ervin ‘Magic’ Johnson. NASCAR’s chief operating officer at the time, George Pyne, noted the following: ‘Magic will help NASCAR achieve its goals to better educate new audiences and facilitate greater participation among the industry and communications of colour’ (‘Magic Johnson to help NASCAR’, 2004, p. 1). Overall, diversity influences important benefits to organisations such as cost savings, access to talented human resources and com petitive advantage (Robinson Governance, CSR and diversity 17Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 and Dechant, 1997). Diversity can also facilitate business growth in areas such as increasing creativity and innovation, improving problem-solving and enhancing leadership capabilities (Cunningham, 2011).These outcomes far outweigh any potential negative effects (Cunningham, 2011). Gaps in practice and research In an introductory survey of interest on the interplay between ideologies of race and identity within sport cultures, Carrington (2004) claimed that significant progress has been made since the ‘intellectual lacuna’ (p. 1) of the 1990s. In parti – cular, the works of Back, Crabbe and Solomos (2001); Carrington and McDonald (2001); Garland and Rowe (2001); Williams (2001); and Ismond (2003) have established strong epistemological literature on race, ethnicity and diversity in social studies of sport. However, despite greater attention to racial equality in sport in recent years, the research and practice of sporting organisations towards creating equality of outcomes has been limited. Little work has been done at the inter – section of strategic CSR implementation and diversity policies. Whilst the theo retical proposition that diversity has subsequent economic benefits for organi- sations is strong, as identified above, the empirical research to investigate this is limited. Further research is needed in this area to assist sporting organisations in understanding, articulating and enhancing these benefits. In a comprehensive review of gender diversity in corporate boards including 400 publications, Terjesen, Sealy, and Singh (2009) found that, among other results, women directors were more committed to CSR than men, who were more concerned about economic performance. In particular, findings from the review indicated that boards with three or more women directors were more inclined to consider non-financial performance measures such as CSR involvement and stakeholder satisfaction. Similarly, in the context of sport organisations, future research should investigate the influence of gender diversity in board composition on the organisation’s non-financial performance measures including CSR. In addition, diverse sport boards by definition draw their directors from a wider range of the population. This often results in a better representation of the key stakeholders of the organisations as well as enhanced sensitivity to a wider range of perspectives (Terjesen et al., 2009). This raises the following questions: To what extent do these diverse boards contribute to building positive and ethical relation – ships with their key stakeholders, which is a salient aspect of CSR? Key stake holders of sport organisations include the players, fans, employees, sponsors and media. If boards indeed have a positive impact on relationship building, in what manner are relationships with these partners developed? There is a clear gap in the literature that has not addressed this issue to date, with important implications for sport management practice. In order to fully realise the extent to which an organisation is successfully imple menting CSR, it must measure its progress on both social objectives and the 18Adriaanse, Cobourn and FrawleyDownloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 18:50 15 January 2017 degree to which these objectives improve the economic value for business. Measure ment of CSR initiatives is an area that requires much more attention from both sport management and management researchers in the future. Despite the relatively widespread interest in CSR, the measurement tools to evaluate impact are still in their infancy. Organisations require a systematic model to assess the impact of CSR initiatives on stakeholders and society, not just the business itself (Lemon, Roberts, Raghubir and Winer, 2011). This area remains a significant gap in the current CSR literature. Whilst organisations are increasingly realising that strong CSR and governance in diversity and inclusion may improve financial performance, there is a large gap in the sport literature regarding the actual link between CSR initiatives and finan – cial performance. Future research could use financial data to examine the direct link between CSR policies and initiatives, and the subsequent financial return on investment. 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